Table 1. Drugs and Drug Classes with Ocular Side Effects

Table 2. Therapeutic Use of Drugs with Ocular Side Effects and Toxicities

		Side Effect or Toxicity
Use	Drug	Type	Dose	Reversible?	Reference
Acne	Isotretinoin	Blepharoconjunctivitis	1 mg/kg/d for 4 mo	Yes	2, 74–77, 11
		Xerosis		Yes
		Corneal opacities		Yes
		Night blindness		Yes
		Pseudotumor cerebri		Yes
	Minocycline	Pseudotumor cerebri		Yes	127
		Scleral pigmentation		Variable	140–141
	Tetracycline	Pseudotumor cerebri	250 mg/d for 4 mo	Yes	3, 4, 67, 10
		Pigmented conjunctival cysts		Not stated
	Vitamin A	Pseudotumor cerebri	200,000 U/d for 2 mo	Yes	90, 104, 10
Alcoholism	Disulfiram	Optic neuropathy		No	5
Arthritis	Amodiaquine	Corneal deposits		No	6, 7, 9–11
	Chloroquine	Corneal deposits		Yes
		Retinal degeneration	>200 g	No
	Hydroxychloroquine	Corneal deposits		Yes
		Retinal deposits	>200 g	No	125, 126
	Gold	Corneal deposits		Yes	12, 13, 95
		Lens deposits		Usually Yes
	D-Penicillamine	Myasthenia	250 mg/d for 2 d	Yes	14–16
Cancer	Busulfan	Cataract	>2 mg/d for >8 mo	Not stated	17, 83
	Cytarabine	Corneal epithelial breakdown	6 g/m/d	Yes	84, 85
	Fluorouracil	Punctal stenosis	2 g/mo for 2 mo	Usually no	19, 86–88
	Corneal epithelial breakdown			Yes
	Interferon	Retinopathy	>150 million units/year	Yes	119–122
	Methotrexate	Corneal epithelial breakdown		Yes	82
	cis-Platinum	Cortical blindness		Yes	18
	Suramin	Corneal deposits	3.2 g	Not stated	89
	Tamoxifen	Corneal deposits	>8.1 g	Not stated	21–23
		Retinal deposits		Not stated
	Tilorone	Corneal deposits	8.1 mg/kg/d for 2 mo	Yes	20, 24
		Retinopathy		Partial
	Vincristine	Optic neuropathy	48 mg IV in 14 mo	No	25–27
		Ophthalmoplegia		Partial
		Cortical blindness		Yes
Cardiac arrhythmia	Amiodarone	Corneal deposits	1 g/d for 8 wk	Yes	28, 98–100, 123, 124
		Lens deposits
		Optic neuropathy		Partial
	Cardiac glycosides, e.g., digitalis, digoxin, lanatoside-C, perhexiline	Altered color perception		Yes	29, 30, 97, 128–129
		Visual hallucinations		Yes
		Pseudotumor cerebri	400 mg/d for4 mo	Yes	31
Contraception	Estrogen-progesterone combinations	Retinal vascular occlusions		No	32, 33
Convulsions	Diazepam	Nystagmus		Yes	34
	Phenobarbital	Nystagmus		Yes	35
	Phenytoin	Nystagmus		Yes	36, 37
	Topiramate	Myopia	Not dose-related	Yes	113, 114
		Acute glaucoma	Not dose-related	Yes
	Trimethadione	Night blindness		Yes	38
	Vigabatrin	Visual field constriction	>250 g cumulative	No	107–112
Diabetes mellitus
General anesthetic	Oral hypoglycemics	Posterior cataract		Not stated	39
Glaucoma	Methoxyflurane	Retinal deposits	4.5-h inhalation	Not stated	40
	Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, e.g., acetazolamide, ethoxzolamide	Myopia	Not dose-related	Yes	41, 42
		Acute glaucoma	Not dose-related	Yes
Hypercholesterolemia
Hypertension	Niacin	Maculopathy	3 g/d	Yes	78
	Practolol	Conjunctival fibrosis	>300 mg/d for 6 mo	No	43–45
Infection
	Chloramphenicol	Optic neuropathy	>25 mg/kg for >3 mo	Usually yes	46
	Diethylcarbamazine	Optic neuropathy	1.8 g in 8 d	Variable	47
		Retinal pigment epitheliopathy		Variable
	Ethambutol	Optic neuropathy	>15 mg/kg/d	Usually yes	48, 91, 92
	Iodochlorhydroxyquin	Optic neuropathy		No	49, 51
	Nalidixic acid	Pseudotumor cerebri	18 g in 18 d	Yes	50
	Rifabutin	Uveitis	>100 gm	Yes	135–137
	Sulfonamides	Myopia		Yes	8, 103
	Suramin	Optic neuropathy		Not stated	52
	Tetracyclines, e.g. minocycline	Pseudotumor cerebri		Yes	53
Impotence	Sildenafil	Altered color perception	>100 mg	Yes	115–117
Inflammation	Glucocorticosteroids, e.g. cortisone, dexamethasone, prednisone, prednisolone	Posterior cataract	>10 mg/d for2 yr	Usually no	54–61
		Ocular hypertension		Yes
	H1 antihistamines, e.g., chloropheniramine, cyclizine, diphenhydramine, promethazine, tripelennamine	Mydriasis		Yes
		Cycloplegia		Yes	132
Iron overload	Deferoxamine	Retinopathy	>50 mg/kg/d	Yes	79–81
Motion sickness	Hyoscine	Cycloplegia		Yes	130
Muscle spasms	Quinine	Optic neuropathy	900 mg/d for 8 d	Partially	62
		Retinal pigment epitheliopathy		Not stated
Paget's disease	Biphosphonates, e.g., alendronate, pamidronate, etidronate	Uveitis		Yes	135, 138–141
Parkinsonism	Benztropine	Mydriasis		Yes	63–65
		Cycloplegia		Yes
	Biperiden	Mydriasis	>2 mg/d		Yes
		Cycloplegia		Yes
	Bromocriptine	Myopia	2.5 mg/d	Yes
	L-Dopa	Involuntary eye movements	>1 g/d	Yes
Peptic ulcer	Antimuscarinics, e.g., belladona tincture, methantheline, oxyphenonium, propantheline	Mydriasis		Yes	66
		Cycloplegia		Yes
Psychiatric disorders	Butyrophenones, e.g., haloperidol	Nystagmus		Yes	68–70, 106
		Mydriasis		Yes
		Cycloplegia		Yes
	Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, e.g., pargyline	Involuntary saccades		Yes
		Nystagmus		Yes
		Mydriasis		Yes
		Cycloplegia		Yes
	Phenothiazines	Nystagmus		Yes
		Mydriasis		Yes
		Cycloplegia		Yes
		Involuntary saccades		Yes
	thioridazine	Corneal deposits		Usually yes	69
		Lens deposits	300 mg/d for >3 yr	Usually no
		Retinal degeneration		No
	chlopromazine	Corneal deposits		Usually Yes	70
		Lens deposits	800 mg/d for 1 mo	Usually no
		Retinal degeneration			No
	Tricyclic antidepressants, e.g., imipramine	Nystagmus		Yes
		Mydriasis		Yes
		Cycloplegia		Yes	131
		Involuntary saccades		Yes
Respiratory distress	Oxygen	Retinopathy	PaO2 >100 mm Hg	Variable	71, 72
	Iodide	Blepharitis		Yes	102
		Conjunctivitis		Yes
Sickle cell disease	Cyanate	Posterior cataract	>25 mg/kg/d for 10 mo		73
Tanning	Canthaxanthine	Retinal deposits		Yes	133, 134
Urinary bladder irrigation	Glycine	Blindness	1.5% solution	Yes	93, 94

1. Grant WM: Systemic drugs and adverse influence on ocular pressure. In Leopold IH (ed): Symposium on Ocular Therapym, Vol 3. St. Louis, CV Mosby, 1968.

2. Blackman HJ, Peck GL, Olsen TG et al: Blepharoconjunctivitis: A side effect of 13-cis-retinoic acid therapy for determatologic diseases. Ophthalmology 86:753, 1979.

3. Giles CL, Soble AR: Intracranial hypertension and tetracycline therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 981, 1971.

4. Pearson MG, Littlwood SM, Bowden AN: Tetracycline and benign intracranial hypertension. Br Med J 1:282, 1981.

5. Saraux H, Biais B: Neurites optiques par le disulfirame. Ann Ocul 203:769, 1970.

6. Hirst LW, Sanborn G, Green WR et al: Amodiaquine ocular changes. Arch Ophthalmol 100:1300, 1982.

7. Easterbrook M: Ocular effects and safety of antimalarial agents. Am J Med 85:23, 1988.

8. Bovino JA, Marcus DF: The mechanism of transient myopia induced by sulfonamide therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 94:99, 1982.

9. Brinkley JRJr , Dubois EL, Ryan SJ: Long-term course of chloroquine retinopathy after cessation of medication. Am J Ophthalmol 88:1, 1979.

10. Graniewski-Wijnands HS, VanLith GHM, Vijfvinkel-Bruinenga S: Ophthalmological examination of patients taking chloroquine. Doc Ophthalmol 48:231, 1979.

11. Ogawa S, Kurumatasi N, Shibaike N et al: Progression of retinopathy long after cessation of chloroquine therapy. Lancet 1:1408, 1979.

12. Gottlieb NL, Major JC: Ocular chrysiasis correlated with gold concentrations in the crystalline lens during cryo-therapy. Arthritis Rheum 21:704, 1978.

13. Bron AJ, McLendon BF, Camp AV: Epithelial deposition of gold in the cornea in patients receiving systemic therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 88:354, 1979.

14. Camus JP, Crouzet J, Bach JF et al: Autoantibodies in $PI$vD-penicillamine treated rheumatoid arthritis. Agents Actions 6:351, 1976.

15. Atcheson SG, Ward JR: Ptosis and weakness after start of $PI$vD-penicillamine therapy. Ann Intern Med 89:939, 1978.

16. Bocanegra T, Espinoza LR, Vasey FB et al: Myasthenia gravis and penicillamine therapy of rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA 244:1822, 1980.

17. Podos SM, Canellos GP: Lens changes in chronic granulocytic leukemia. Possible relationship to chemotherapy. Am J Ophthalmol 68:500, 1969.

18. Becher R, Schutt P, Osieka R et al: Peripheral neuropathy and ophthalmologic toxicity after treatment with cis-dichlorodiaminoplatinum II. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 96:219, 1980.

19. Caravella LPJr , Burns JA, Zangmeister M: Punctalcanalicular stenosis related to systemic fluorouracil therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 99:284, 1981.

20. Blanke RV, Sady JJ, Drummond DC et al: Tilorone in a corneal biopsy. J Anal Toxicol 9:206, 1979.

21. Kaiser-Kupfer MI, Lippman ME: Tamoxifen retinopathy. Cancer Treat Rep 62:315, 1978.

22. Kaiser-Kupfer MI, Kupfer C, Rodriques MM: Tamoxifen retinopathy. Ophthalmology 88:89, 1981.

23. Beck M, Mills PV: Ocular assessment of patients with tamoxifen. Cancer Treat Rep 63:1833, 1979.

24. Weiss JN, Ochs AL, Abedi S et al: Retinopathy after tilorone hydrochloride. Am J Ophthalmol 90:846, 1980.

25. Albert DM, Wong VG, Henderson ES: Ocular complications of vincristine therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 78:709, 1967.

26. Sanderson PA, Kuwabara T, Cogan DG: Optic neuropathy presumably caused by vincristine therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 81:146, 1976.

27. Byrd RL, Rohrbaugh TM, Raney BJr et al: Transient cortical blindness secondary to vincristine therapy in childhood malignancies. Cancer 47:37, 1981.

28. D'Amico DJ, Kenyon KR, Ruskin JN: Amiodarone keratopathy: Drug-induced lipid storage disease. Arch Ophthalmol 99:257, 1981.

29. Volpe BT, Soave R: Formed visual hallucinations as digitalis toxicity. Ann Intern Med 91:865, 1979.

30. Aronson JF, Ford AR: The use of colour vision measurement in the diagnosis of digoxin toxicity. Q J Med 195:273, 1980.

31. Atkinson AB, McAreavey D, Trope G: Papilloedema and hepatic dysfunction apparently induced by perhexiline maleate (Pexid). Br Heart J 43:490, 1980.

32. Svarc ED, Werner D: Isolated retinal hemorrhages associated with oral contraceptives. Am J Ophthalmol 84:50, 1977.

33. Perry HD, Mallen FJ: Cilioretinal artery occlusion associated with oral contraceptives. Am J Ophthalmol 84:56, 1977.

34. Alpert JN: Downbeat nystagmus due to anticonvulsant toxicity. Ann Neurol 4:471, 1978.

35. Gallagher B, Baumel IP, Mattson RH et al: Primidone, diphenylhydantoin and phenobarbital. Neurology 23:145, 1973.

36. Kutt H, Winters W, Kokenge R, McDowell F: Diphenylhydantoin metabolism, blood levels and toxicity. Arch Neurol 11:642, 1964.

37. Riker WK, Downes H, Olsen GD et al: Conjugate lateral gaze nystagmus and free phenytoin concentrations in plasma: Lack of correlation. Epilepsia 19:93, 1978.

38. Sloan LL, Gilger AP: Visual effects of Tridione. Am J Ophthalmol 30:1387, 1947.

39. Skalka HW, Prchal JT: The effect of diabetes mellitus and diabetic therapy on cataract formation. Ophthalmology 88:117, 1981.

40. Albert DM, Bullock JD, Lahav M, Caine R: Flecked retina secondary to oxalate crystals from methoxyflurane anesthesia: Clinical and experimental studies. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 79:817, 197.

41. Muirhead JF, Scheie HG: Transient myopia after acetazolamide. Arch Ophthalmol 63:315, 1960.

42. Beasley FJ: Transient myopia and retinal edema during ethoxzolamide (Cardrase) therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 68:490, 1962.

43. Wright P: Untoward effects associated with practolol administration: Oculomucocutaneous syndrome. Br Med J 1:595, 1975.

44. Rahi AHS, Chapman CM, Garner A et al: Pathology of practolol-induced ocular toxicity. Br J Ophthalmol 60:312, 1976.

45. Skegg DGG, Doll R: Frequency of eye complaints and rashes among patients receiving practolol and propranolol. Lancet 2:475, 1977.

46. Harley RD, Huang NN, Macri CH et al: Optic neuritis and optic atrophy following chloramphenicol in cystic fibrosis patients. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 74:1011, 1970.

47. Bird AC, Sheikh HE, Anderson J et al: Changes in visual function and in the posterior segment of the eye during treatment of onchocerciasis with diethylcarbamazine citrate. Br J Ophthalmol 64:191, 1980.

48. Barron CJ, Tepper L, Iovine G: Ocular toxicity from ethambutol. Am J Ophthalmol 77:256, 1974.

49. Derakhshan I, Forough M: Progressive visual loss after eight years on choquinol. Lancet 1:715, 1978.

50. Cohen DN: Intracranial hypertension and papilledema associated with naladixic acid therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 76:680, 1973.

51. Katahira K: SMON reported in 1935 in Argentina. JAMA 239:2757, 1978.

52. Thylefors B, Rolland A: The risk of optic atrophy following suramin treatment of ocular onchocerciosis. Bull WHO 57:479, 1979.

53. Jay WM, Jay S: Benign intracranial hypertension with tetracycline therapy. J Pediatr 93:901, 1978.

54. Walker AR, Adamckiewicz JJ: Pseudotumor cerebri associated with prolonged corticosteroid therapy. JAMA 188:779, 1964.

55. Sundmark E: The cataract-inducing effect of systemic corticosteroid therapy. Acta Ophthalmol 44:291, 1966.

56. Williamson J, Paterson RWW, McGavin DDM et al: Posterior subcapsular cataracts and glaucoma associated with long-term oral corticosteroid therapy. Br J Ophthalmol 53:361, 1969.

57. Ivey KJ, Den Besten L: Pseudotumor cerebri associated with corticosteroid therapy in an adult. JAMA 208:1698, 1969

58. Ticho U, Durst A, Licht A et al: Steroid-induced glaucoma and cataract in renal transplant recipients. Isr J Med Sci 13:871, 1977.

59. Hosking GP, Elliston H: Benign intracranial hypertension in a child with eczema treated with topical steroids. Br Med J 1:550, 1978.

60. Rooklin AR, Lampert SI, Jaeger EA et al: Posterior subcapsular cataracts in steroid-requiring asthmatic children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 63:383, 1979.

61. Skalka HW, Prchal JT: Effect of corticosteroids on cataract formation. Arch Ophthalmol 98:1773, 1980.

62. Gangtano JL, Keltner JL: Abnormalities of the pupil and visual-evoked-potential in quinine amblyopia. Am J Ophthalmol 89:425, 1980.

63. Medina C, Kramer MD, Kurland AA: Biperiden in the treatment of phenothiazine-induced extrapyramidal reactions. JAMA 182:1127, 1962.

64. Manor RS, Dickerman Z, Llaron Z: Myopia during bromocriptine treatment. Lancet 1:102, 1981.

65. Shimizu N, Cohen B, Bala SP et al: Ocular dyskinesias in patients with Parkinson's disease treated with levodopa. Ann Neurol 1:167, 1977.

66. Freeling P: A trial of oxyphencyclimine. Practitioner 192:797, 1964.

67. Brothers DM, Hidayat AA: Conjunctival pigmentation associated with tetracycline medication. Ophthalmology 88:1212, 1981.

68. Laties AM: Ocular toxicology of haloperidol. In Leopold IH, Burns RP (eds): Symposium on Ocular Therapy, Vol 9. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

69. Rasmussen K, Kirk L, Faurbye A: Deposits in the lens and cornea of the eye during long-term chlorpromazine medication. Acta Psychiatr Scand 53:1, 1976.

70. Meredith TA, Aaberg TM, Willerson D: Progressive chorioretinopathy after receiving thioridazine. Arch Ophthalmol 96:1172, 1978.

71. Kinsey VE: Cooperative study of retrolental fibroplasia and the use of oxygen. Arch Ophthalmol 56:481, 1956.

72. Miyazaki Y, Van Leeuwen L, Van Leeuwen G: Retrolental fibroplasia: A continuing dilemma for the pediatrician. Clin Pediatr 16:1091, 1977.

73. Nicholson DH, Harkness DR, Benson WE et al: Cyanate-induced cataracts in patients with sickle cell hemoglobinopathies. Arch Ophthalmol 94:927, 1976.

74. Spector RH, Carlisle J: Pseudotumor cerebri caused by a synthetic vitamin A preparation. Neurology 34:1509, 1984.

75. Fraunfelder FT, LaBraico JM, Meyer SM: Adverse ocular reactions possibly associated with isotretinoin. Am J Ophthalmol 100:534, 1985

76. Weleber RG, Denman ST, Hanifin JM, Cunningham WJ: Abnormal retinal function associated with isotretinoin therapy for acne. Arch Ophthalmol 104:831, 1986.

77. Brown RD, Grattan CEH: Visual toxicity of synthetic retinoids. Br J Ophthalmol 73:286, 1989

78. Millay RH, Klein ML, Illingworth DR: Niacin maculopathy. Ophthalmology 95:930, 1988.

79. Olivieri NL, Buncic JR, Chew E et al: Visual and auditory neurotoxicity in patients receiving subcutaneous deferoxamine infusions. N Engl J Med 314:869, 1986.

80. Rahl AHS, Hungerford JL, Ahmed AI: Ocular toxicity of desferrioxamine: Light microscopic histochemical and ultrastructural finding. Br J Ophthalmol 70:373, 1986.

81. Pengloan J, Dantal J, Rossazza C et al: Ocular toxicity after a single intravenous dose of desferrioxamine in 2 hemodialyzed patients. Nephron 46:211, 1987.

82. Doroshow JH, Locker GY, Gasterland DE et al: Ocular irritation from high-dose methotrexate therapy. Pharmokinetics of drug in the tear film. Cancer 48:2158, 1981.

83. Hamming NA, Apple DJ, Goldberg MF: Histopathology and ultrastructure of busulfan-induced cataract. Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol 200:139, 1976.

84. Hopen G, Mondino BJ, Johnson BL: Corneal toxicity with systemic cytarabine. Am J Ophthalmol 91:500, 1981.

85. Kaufman HE, Capella JA, Maloney ED: Corneal toxicity of cytosine arabinoside. 72:535, 1964.

86. Christophidis N, Vajda FJE, Lucas I et al: Ocular side effects with 5-fluorouracil. Aust N Z J Med 9:143, 1979.

87. Haidak DJ, Hurwitz BS, Yeung KY: Tear duct fibrosis (dacryostenosis) due to 5-fluorouracil. Ann Intern Med 88:657, 1978.

88. Straus DJ, Mausolf FA, Ellerby RA et al: Cicatricial entropion secondary to 5-fluorouracil therapy. Med Pediatr Oncol 3:15, 1977.

89. Holland EJ, Stein CA, Palestine AG et al: Suramin keratopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 106:216, 1988.

90. Muenter MD, Perry HO, Ludwig J: Chronic vitamin A intoxication in adults. Am J Med 50:129, 1971.

91. Yiannikas C, Walsh JC, McLeod JG: Visual evoked potentials in the detection of subclinical optic toxic effects secondary to ethambutol. Arch Neurol 40:654, 1983.

92. Chatterjee VKK, Buchanan DR, Friedman AI et al: Ocular toxicity following ethambutol in standard dosage. Br J Dis Chest 80:288, 1986.

93. Casey WF, Hannon V, Cunningham A et al: Visual evoked potentials and changes in serum glycine concentration during transurethral resection of the prostate. Br J Anaesth 60:525, 1988.

94. Wang JM, Creel DJ, Wong KC: Transurethral resection of the prostate, serum glycine levels, and ocular evoked potentials. Anesthesiology 70:36, 1989.

95. McCormick SAD, Bartolomeo AC, Raju VK et al: Ocular chrysiasis. Ophthalmology 92:1432, 1985.

96. Weidle EG: Lenticular chrysiasis in oral chrysotherapy. Am J Ophthalmol 103:240, 1987.

97. Chuman MA, LeSage J: Color vision deficiencies in 2 cases of digoxin toxicity. Am J Ophthalmol 100:682, 1985.

98. Feiner LA, Yonger BR, Kazmier FJ et al: Optic neuropathy and amiodarone therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 62:702, 1987.

99. Gittinger JW, Asdourian GK: Papillopathy caused by amiodarone. Arch Ophthalmol 105:349, 1987.

100. Nazarian SM, Jay WM: Bilateral optic neuropathy associated with amiodarone therapy. J Clin Neurol Ophthalmol 8:25, 1988.

101. Messmer E, Font RL, Sheldon G et al: Pigmented conjunctival cysts following tetracycline/minocycline therapy: Histochemical and electron microscopic observations. Ophthalmology 90:1462, 1983.

102. Kincaid MC, Green WR, Hoover RE et al: Iododerma of the conjunctiva and skin. Ophthalmology 88:1216, 1981.

103. Hook SR, Holladay JT, Prager TC et al: Transient myopia induced by sulfonamides. Am J Ophthalmol 101:495, 1986.

104. Oliver TRJr , Havener WH: Eye manifestations of chronic vitamin A intoxication. Arch Ophthalmol 60:19, 1958.

105. Morrice GJr , Havener WH, Kapetansky F: Vitamin A intoxication as a cause of pseudotumor cerebri. JAMA 173:1802, 1960.

106. Bickerstaff ER, Jacoby E: Oculogyric crisis with phenothiazine derivatives. Br Med J 1:647, 1960.

107. Lawden MC, Eke T, Degg C et al: Visual field defects associated with vigabatrin therapy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67:716, 1999.

108. Johnson MA, Krauss GL, Miller NR et al: Visual function loss from vigabatrin: Effect of stopping the drug. Neurolology 55:40, 2000.

109. Daneshvar H, Racette L, Coupland SG et al: Symptomatic and asymptomatic visual loss in patients taking vigabatrin. Ophthalmology 106:1792, 1999.

110. Arndt CF, Derambure P, De Foort-Dhellemmes S et al: Outer retinal dysfunction in patients treated with vigabatrin. Neurology 52:1201, 1999.

111. Harding GFA, Wild JM, Robertson KA et al: Separating the retinal electrophysiologic effects of vigabatrin. Neurology 55:347, 2000.

112. Malmgren K, Menachem E, Frisen L: Vigabatrin visual toxicity: Evolution and dose dependence. Epilepsia 42:609, 2001.

113. Sen HA, O'Halloran HS, Lee WB et al: Topiramate-induced acute myopia and retinal striae. Arch Ophthalmol 119:775, 2001.

114. Sankar PS, Pasquale LR, Grosskruetz CL: Uveal effusion and secondary angle-closure glaucoma associated with topiramate use. Arch Ophthalmol 119:1210, 2001.

115. Vobig M, Klotz T, Staak M et al: Retinal side-effects of sildenafil. Lancet: 353:375, 1999.

116. Luu JK, Chappelow AV, McCulley TJ et al: Acute effects of sildenafil on the electroretinogram and multifocal electroretronogram. Am J Ophthalmol 132:388, 2001.

117. Gabrieli CB, Regine F, Vingold EM et al: Subjective visual halos after sildenafil (Viagra) administration. Ophthalmology 108:877, 2001.

118. Fraunfelder FT, Fraunfelder FW, Edwards R: Ocular side effects possibly associated with isotretinoin usage. Am J Ophthalmol 132:299, 2001

119. Hoerauf H, Schmidt-Erfurth U, Asiyo-Vogel M et al: Combined choroidal and retinal ischemia during interferon therapy: Indocyanine green angiographic and microperimetric findings. Arch Ophthalmol 118:580, 2000.

120. Hejny C, Sternberg P Jr , Lanson DH et al: Retinopathy associated with high-dose interferon alpha-2b therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 131:782, 2001.

121. Esmaeli B, Koller C, Papadopoulos N et al: Interferon-induced retinopathy in asymptomatic cancer patients. Ophthalmology 108:858, 2001.

122. Tokai R, Ikeda T, Miyaura T et al: Interferon-associated retinopathy and cystoid macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol 119:1077, 2001.

123. Flash AJ, Dolan BJ: Progression of amiodarone induced cataracts. Doc Ophthalmol 83:323, 1993

124. Mantyjarvi M, Tuppurainen K, Ikaheimo K: Ocular side effects of amiodarone. Survey Ophthalmol 42:360, 1998.

125. Grierson DJ: Hydroxychloroquine and visual screening in a rheumatology outpatient clinic. Ann Rheumat Dis 56:188, 1997.

126. Block JA: Hydroxychloroquine and retinal safety. Lancet 351:771, 1998.

127. Chiu AM, Chuenkongkaew WL, Cornblath WT: Minocycline treatment and pseudotumor cerebri syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 126:116, 1998.

128. Wolin MJ: Digoxin visual toxicity with therapeutic blood levels of digoxin. Am J Ophthalmol 125:406, 1998.

129. Madreperla SA, Johnson MA, Nakatani K: Electrophysiologic and electroretinographic evidence for photoreceptor dysfunction as a toxic effect of digoxin. Arch Ophthalmol 112:807, 1994.

130. Alhalel A, Ziu I, Versano D et al: Ocular effects of hyocine in double dose transdermal administration and its reversal by low dose pyridostigmine. Aviat Space Environ Med 66:11, 1995.

131. Eltze M, Mutschler E, Lambrecht G: Affinity profiles of pizotifen, ketotifen and other tricyclic antimuscarinics at muscarinic receptor subtypes M₁, M_2, and M₃. Eur J Pharmacol 211:283, 1992.

132. Kubo N, Shirakawa O, Kuno T et al: Antimuscarinic effects of antihistaminics: Quantitative evaluation by receptor binding assay. Jap J Pharmacol 43:277, 1987.

133. Harnois C., Samson J, Malenfant M et al: Canthaxanthin retinopathy anatomic and functional reversibility. Arch Ophthalmol 107:538, 1989.

134. Espaillat A, Aiello LP, Arrigg PG et al: Canthaxanthin retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 117:412, 1999.

135. Moorthy RS, Valluri S, Jampol LM: Drug-induced uveitis. Survey Ophthalmol 42:557, 1998.

136. Jewelewicz DA, Schiff WM, Brown S: Rifabutin-associated uveitis in an immunosuppressed pediatric patient without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 125:872, 1998.

137. Bhagat N, Read RW, Rao NA: Rifabutin-associated hypopyon uveitis in human immunodeficiency virus–negative immunocompetent individuals. Ophthalmol 108:750, 2001.

138. Siris ES: Biphosphonates and uveitis. Lancet 341:436, 1993.

139. Mbekeani JC, Slamovits TL, Schwartz BH et al: Ocular inflammation associated with alendronate therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 117:837, 1999.

140. Sabroe RA, Archer CB, Harlow D et al: Minocycline-induced discolouration of the sclerae. Brit J Dermatol 135:314, 1996.

141. Fraunfelder FT, Randall JA: Minocycline-induced scleral pigmentation. Ophthalmol 104:936, 1997.